Reading Comprehension: social science passages

A typical passage introduces a theory about human behavior or social change, presents evidence from a study or historical case, and discusses the theory's strengths or limits. The author may compare competing theories or show how a new study challenges an older view.

For example, a passage might explain that a common theory holds that people save more as interest rates rise. It then presents data showing that savings behavior changed little in a certain period, and the author argues that the theory overlooks psychological factors. The questions ask about the theory, the evidence, and the author's evaluation.

A theory is a general explanation. Evidence is the data or historical example that supports or challenges it. The passage may use words such as "suggests," "challenges," "supports," and "undermines" to show the relationship. These words tell you whether the author thinks the evidence is strong.

Distinguish between a study's findings and the author's interpretation. A study may find that a group behaves in a certain way. The author may argue that the finding supports a broader theory. The finding and the interpretation are not the same, and questions often test the difference.

Social science studies often rely on samples. A sample is representative if it reflects the larger population. A sample of college students may not represent all adults. A sample from one country may not represent other countries. The author may mention these limits, and the questions may ask what the study can and cannot support.

Social science passages often describe correlations. A correlation means two variables move together. It does not prove that one causes the other. The author may be careful to say that a relationship is "associated with" rather than "caused by." If the passage claims causation, look for the evidence that supports the causal direction.

A third variable can explain both. If a passage finds that people who read more are happier, a third variable such as income could affect both reading and happiness. The author may discuss this possibility, or a question may ask you to identify it.

Some passages present two theories and ask you to compare them. One theory may explain a broader range of cases, while another may explain a specific case better. The author may favor one without rejecting the other entirely.

Social science passages often use measured language. The author may describe a theory as "influential but incomplete," "useful but limited," or "widely accepted but recently challenged." Tone questions ask you to identify this attitude. The correct answer is usually qualified rather than extreme.

Do not assume the author agrees with every view mentioned. Attribution matters. If the passage says "economists have long assumed," the author may be setting up a view to challenge later.

Inference questions ask what follows from the passage. The answer must be supported by the evidence, not by common sense. If the passage says that a policy reduced unemployment in one region, an inference is that the policy may have contributed to the decline. It is not an inference that the policy would work everywhere.

Application questions ask you to apply a theory to a new case. Identify the theory's central mechanism, then choose the case that matches it. The topic may be different, but the logical relationship should be the same.

Some social science passages compare two periods, countries, or groups. The comparison can reveal a pattern that a single case cannot. Pay attention to the basis of comparison. If a passage compares two cities, the author may argue that one policy explains a difference, but other differences between the cities could also matter.

A comparative argument is stronger when the cases are similar in other respects. If the passage says the cities had similar populations, incomes, and industries before the policy changed, the comparison is more convincing. If the passage does not mention these factors, the conclusion is more tentative.

Social science explanations can focus on individuals or on institutions. An individual explanation says that people's choices, beliefs, or habits cause a result. An institutional explanation says that laws, markets, or organizations cause it. The author may combine both or argue that one is more important.

When a question asks about the author's view, check which level of explanation the passage supports. A passage may describe individual behavior without claiming that behavior is the main cause. The conclusion may point to an institutional factor that shapes the behavior.

Some passages discuss the implications of research for policy. The author may argue that a finding supports a particular intervention, or may caution that the evidence is too limited to justify one. Distinguish between what the study found and what the author recommends. A recommendation usually requires additional assumptions about costs, feasibility, and values.

1. Identify the theory or claim the passage discusses.
2. Track the evidence and the author's evaluation.
3. Note the sample, the time period, and any limitations.
4. For main idea questions, choose the claim that covers the whole passage.
5. For inference questions, stay close to the evidence.
6. For application questions, match the theory's mechanism.

• Assuming a correlation proves causation.
• Generalizing from a narrow sample.
• Confusing the author's view with a scholar's view.
• Choosing an extreme tone when the author is qualified.
• Ignoring a limitation the passage mentions.
• Using outside knowledge about economics or society.